How much does it cost to build hydropower plant?

The cost of building a hydropower plant can range from $1,000 to $5,000 per kilowatt installed. It can vary depending on several factors, such as the size of the plant, location, technology used, and local regulatory and environmental considerations. 

The total cost range of a small hydropower plant up to 10 MW is between $1,000 and $5,000 per installed kW. 

The total cost range of a medium-sized hydropower plant 10MW to 100MW is between $1,500 and $5,000 per installed kW. 

The total cost range of a large hydropower plant over 100MW is between $2,000 and $4,000 per installed kW. 

Factors affecting the cost of hydropower plants: 

• A plant located in an area where there are no dams and tunnels will generally be more expensive. 
• The plant and building connecting transmission lines can be additional costs that can vary depending on site to site. 
• There is such regulatory compliance as cost of permits and environmental impact studies that can add significant costs to the projects. 

What is biggest hydroelectricpower plant in the world?

The biggest hydroelectric power plant is based in Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China. The installed capacity of this power plant is 22.5 Gigawatts (GW).  

Location: Hubei Province, China

River: Yangtze River

Installed Capacity: 22.5 GW

Electricity Generation: 103.649 billion kWh        

Total Generator: 34            

HydroPower Plant | Definition | Working | Advantages

In this article, Your are going to study definition, layout, working, advantages and disadvantages of hydropower plant. 

Definition of hydropower plant

HydroPower Plant is the electricity-producing plant in which the water is an essential fuel. The potential energy is being converted into kinetic energy and kinetic energy is further converted into the mechanical energy. This mechanical energy convert into electrical energy with the help of the turbine and motor. Thus, hydropower plant is also called hydro electric power plant. 

Layout of hydropower plant

The layout of hydropower plant consist of following. 

1. Headpond or Reservoir
2. Control gate
3. Penstock
4. Turbine
5. Draft Tube
6. Tail Race
7. Transmission Line
8. Electric Generator
9. Transformer
10. Power House

1. Headpond

There is one reservoir or headpond which is having a large area in which a huge amount of water is being stored here. In headpond, the energy is in the form of potential energy. 

2. Control Gate

There is one control gate which is regulate the flow of the water. When the control gate is fully open the speed of water flow is maximum and partly open the speed of water is limited. 

3. Penstock

There is pipe in which the water is flow is called penstock. The water stored at the dam of headpond is being released by the control gate. The water then stars moving towards turbine. The headpond is at high height and turbine situated at lower height. Thus, we can increase the speed of water because of gravitational force. 

4. Turbine

Turbine is the main device used for electricity generation. The work of turbine is convert the kinetic energy of fluid into the rotational energy. The high kinetic energy water travels through the penstock to the nozzle, where it impacts the turbine blades. Turbine blades start rotating, thus the rotational energy can also be called mechanical energy. 

5. Draft Tube

Draft tube is the component which is used to enlarging the pipe area for sending maximum fluid to the other side. 

6. Tail Race

The tail race carries the water away from the plant this, the water is sent to the river. 

7. Transmission Line

The transmission line carries power from the power unit or transformer and transfers from one source to another. This line is made up of conductor. 

8. Electric Generator

When the turbine starts rotating, the turbine shafts also rotating. The motors are attached to the turbine shafts which is also rotating and electric generator attached to them which generates electricity. 

9. Transformer

The transformer is connected to the generator. The electricity generated is now controlled by the transformer. The work of transformer is to setup or set down the voltage. 

10. Power House

The power house means there is a house in which the power is being stored and released to the transformer and so on. 

HydroPower Plant working

The large amount of water is stored into the dam in the form of potential energy. The control gate releases the water, and water begins to flow into the penstock. There are two components related to the penstock surge tank: a valve and nozzle. The valve is initially closed, but when the water level reaches the maximum level that can produce high pressure, we turn on the valves. The water with high pressure start flowing and strikes to the turbine blades through the nozzle. The turbine blade start rotating. We observed the water which is having potential energy till now is converting into kinetic energy. An electric motor is mounted on the turbine shafts. Thus, rotation of turbine blades also rotates the turbine shafts, which also rotates the electric motor. Hence, kinetic energy convert into the mechanical energy and then further it is converted into electric energy. The energy which is generated is sent to the powerhouse, transformed, and transmission line. The water that rotates the turbine blades is now sent to the river via a tailrace. The hydroelectric facility is designed to hold a considerable volume of water. When the water reaches its maximum level, it is released, causing a flood in some areas.

Hydropower plant advantages

1. Renewable energy source

Hydropower plant is renewable because it relies on water cycle, which is continuously replenished by precipitation. 

2. Low operating cost

The cost of operating and maintenance is very low, only the cost of built it is one time cost. After that their operation and maintenance cost is minimal. But, the first time construction cost is also very high. 

3. Clean energy

Hydropower plant produces no air pollution or direct green house gas emissions. Thus, it is clean energy plant. 

4. High efficiency

Hydropower plant convert more than 90% of the available energy into electricity, making them one of the most efficient energy sources, 

5. Flexible power generation

Hydropower plant can quickly adjust to fluctuations in electricity demand as per that it can be easily regulated up or down. 

6. Flood control and water management

Dams can help to manage water resources, irrigation, and flood control. 

7. Long lifespan

Hydropower plant can operate for many decades for around 50 to 100 years or more. Thus, this plant provide long term energy solutions. 

8. Recreational opportunities

The reservoirs can created by dams. Thus, it can offer recreational activities such as boating, fishing, and swimming. 

Hydropower plant disadvantages

1. Environmental impact

The dams can significantly alter ecosystems, affecting fish migration, water quality, and local wildlife. 

2. Dependence on water availability

This plan electricity generation is totally dependent on water availability, it can be affected by seasonal variations of water. 

3. Risk of Catastrophic failures

Though dam failure is rare, but if that happened it can lead to catastrophic flooding and significant loss of life and property. 

4. Siltation and sedimentation

Reservoirs can accumulate silt and sediment, which can reduce the efficiency and lifespan of this plant over time. 

Explore related information

• Largest Hydropower Plant in the World

Taper Roller Bearing | Features | Advantages | Applications

The taper roller bearing is made up of rolling parts shaped like a cone frustum. They are placed so that the axes of each rolling element connect at a shared apex on the bearing's axis. In kinematics analysis, this is the necessary condition for pure rolling motion between conical surfaces. The line of resultant reaction in a taper roller bearing caused by rolling motion between conical surfaces. In taper roller bearings, the line of resultant reaction across the rolling elements forms an angle with the bearing's axis. As a result, taper roller bearings can withstand both radial and axial loads. In reality, the existence of either component causes the other to act on the bearing. In other words, a taper roller bearing under pure radial stress generates a thrust component. Taper roller bearings have a detachable construction. The outer ring is called a cup, while the inner ring is called a cone. The cup can be separated from the bearing assembly, which includes the roller, cage, and cone.

Taper Roller Bearing

Features of Taper Roller Bearing:

• It support all types of loads.
• Taper roller bearing are especially high load capacity and high rigidity.

Following are the Advantages of Taper Roller Bearing:

• This type of bearing can take heavy radial and thrust loads.
• Tapper roller bearing has more rigidity.
• Taper roller bearing have a high load capacity.
• Tapper roller bearing can be easily assembled and disassembled due to separable parts.
• They have minimal load requirement source.
• It support pure radial, pure axial or any combination without modification.

Following are the Disadvantages of Tapper Roller Bearing

• Two taper roller bearings are necessarily used on the shaft to balance the axial force.
• It is necessary to adjust the axial position of the bearing with pre load. This is essential to coincide the apex of the cone with the common apex of the rolling elements.
• Tapper roller bearing are costly.

Application of Taper Roller Bearing:

Taper roller bearing is used in variety of application. Following are the application of Taper Roller Bearing:

• Roller Shaft supports
• Engines and Reducer.
• Railroad axel boxes 
• Mining
• Cantilever wheel axles
• They are used in car and trucks
• Contraction
• Large size bearing in rolling mills
• Aircraft fuel pump
• Gearboxes for industrial machinery
• It is used in propeller shaft and differentials
• Agriculture machinery shaft

Angular Contact Bearing | Advantages | Uses

In angular contact bearing, the groove in inner and outer race are so shaped that the line of reaction at the contact between the balls and races makes an angle with the axis of the bearing. There are two parts to this reaction: axial and radial. Therefor the angular contact bearing are often used in pair, either side by side or at the opposite ends of the shaft, in order to take the thrust load in both direction. These bearing are assembled with a specific magnitude or preload. Let us check more details about angular contact bearing in this article. 

Angular Contact Bearing

Following are the Advantages of  Angular Contact Bearing 

• Angular Contact Bearing can take both radial and thrust load.
• In Angular Contact Bearing, one side of groove in the outer race is cut away to permit the insertion of large number of balls than that of deep groove ball bearing. This permit to bearing to carry relatively large axial and radial load. Therefore the load carrying capacity of angular contact bearing is more than that of deep groove ball bearing.

Following are the Disadvantages of  Angular Contact Bearing 

• Two bearing are required to take thrust load in both directions.
• It is necessary to install the angular contact bearing without any axial play.
• First preloading is necessary for the angular contact bearing.

Application are Angular Contact Bearing used in

It is used in variety of application. This bearing are use in high speed, high precision application for:

• Agriculture
• Chemical
• General industry
• Utilities

Cylindrical Roller Bearing | Advantages | Uses

The fundamental design of cylindrical roller bearing consists of cylindrical rollers in linear contact with the raceways. The line contact of a roller bearing is used in place of the point contact of a ball bearing when the maximum load carrying capacity in a given space is needed. The cage guides and positions the compared short rollers in a cylindrical roller bearing. This bearing are suitable for high speed rotation due to the low friction between the ring ribs and rollers. 

Cylindrical Roller Bearing

Following  are the Advantages of Cylindrical Roller Bearing

• Due to line contact between rollers and races, the radial load carrying capacity of the cylindrical roller bearing is very high compared to ball bearing.
• Compared to ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings are more rigid.
• Cylindrical Roller Bearing are easy to install, slim and save space and weight.
• In high speed applications, there is minimal frictional loss and a low coefficient of friction. Cylindrical Roller Bearing faster speeds than other types of roller bearing.
• Cylindrical Roller Bearing comes in several sizes and material, and they have straight outside and inside diameters.

Following are the Disadvantages of Cylindrical Roller Bearing

• Cylindrical Roller Bearing cannot take thrust load.
• Cylindrical Roller Bearing is not self aligning.
• Cylindrical Roller Bearing cannot tolerate misalignment. Precise alignment between the shaft's axis and the housing's bore is required.
• Cylindrical Roller Bearing generates more noise.

Application are Cylindrical Roller Bearing used in:

It is used in variety of applications. Following are the application of Cylindrical Roller Bearing:

• Mining
• Machine tool
• Power Transmission
• Power Generation

Deep Groove Ball Bearing Advantages and Disadvantages

The most frequently used bearing is the deep ball bearing. It is found in almost all kinds of product in general mechanical engineering. In this type of bearing, the radius if the ball is slightly less than the radii if curvature of the grooves in the races. Kinematic ally, this gives a point contact between the balls and the races. As a result, there will be no sleeping and the balls and races are rolls freely. 

The Advantages of Deep Groove Ball Bearing are as follows:

1. Due to relatively large size of the balls, deep ball bearing has high load carrying capacity.
2. A deep groove ball bearing can withstand axial and radial loads.
   Because of point contact, deep groove ball bearings produce less noise.
3. Deep groove ball bearing  are available with bore diameter from a few millimeters to 400 millimeters.
4. This bearing experiences less frictional loss and subsequent temperature rise because of the point contact between the balls and races. The maximum speed of shaft is determined by the temperature rise of the bearing. Thus, Deep groove ball bearings are used for high speed applications. 

The Disadvantages of Deep Groove Ball Bearing  are as follows:

1. Deep groove ball bearing  is not self aligning. It is necessary to line the shaft's axis accurately with the housing bore.
2. When compared to roller bearings, deep groove ball bearings are less rigid. This is due to the print contact compared with the line contact in case of roller bearing. For machine tool spindles, where rigidity is a key factor, it is incorrect.  

What is Bearing? Types | Uses | Applications

A bearing is a mechanical component that reduces friction and allows relative motion between two parts, such as shaft and the housing. The function of bearing are follows. 

Function of bearing

• The bearing ensures that the shaft or the axle rotates freely with minimum friction. 
• The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds it in the proper place. 
• The bearing absorbs the forces that act on the shaft or axle and transfers them to the frame or foundation. 
  

Depending on the direction of force acting on them, bearings are categorized in several ways. Below, we can examine the many types of bearings. 

Types of bearing

• Radical bearing
• Thrust bearing

Radical bearing supports the load, which is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. While, Thrust bearing supports the load, which acts along the axis of the shaft. A Thrust bearing support the load, which at along the axis of the shaft.

Bearing are classify into two main groups: Sliding contact bearing and rolling contact bearing. Sliding contact bearing are also called plain bearing, journal bearing or sleeve bearing. Rolling contact bearing are also called antifriction bearing or simply ball bearings. 

Sliding contact bearing

In this case, the surface of the shaft slides over the surface of the bush resulting in friction and wear. In order to reduce the friction, these two surface are separated by a film of lubricating oil. 

      (a) Sliding Contact Bearing

Sliding contact bearing are used in the following applications

• Crankshaft bearing in petrol and diesel engines
• Centrifugal pumps
• Large size electric motors
• Steam and gas turbines 
• Concrete mixers, rope conveyers and marine installations

Following are the advantages sliding contact bearing

• The shaft has simple design.
• They are less expensive.
• They are more silent in operation
• They are more compact.
• They have good shocks load capacity
• Suited for medial and high speed operation

Following are the disadvantages of sliding contact bearing

• Frictional power loss is considerable.
• They required careful attention to lubrication.
• They are normally design to carry  radial load or axial load only.

Types of Sliding Contact Bearing

1. Slipper Bearing 
2. Journal or Sleeve Bearing
3. Thrust Bearing

Rolling contact bearing

Rolling element such as balls or rollers, are introduced between the surfaces that are in relative motion. In this type of bearing sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction. 

(b) Rolling Contact Bearing

Rolling contract bearing are used in the following applications

• Machine tool spindles
• Automobile front and rear axels
• Gear boxes
• Small size electric motor
• Rope sheaves crane hooks and hoisting drums

Following are the advantages of Rolling contact bearing

• Rolling contact bearing is a simple lubrications.
• These type of bearing are simple to replace.
• Overall dimension is small.
• Cleanliness.
• It is low cost of maintenance.
• These type of bearing are supported to both radial and trust loads.
• These type of bearing structure are simple to maintain and compact.
• Frictional starting torque is less than the frictional running torque.

Following are the disadvantages of Rolling contact bearing

• High initial cost
• Limited life span
• This type of bearing is lower capacity to withstand stocks

Following are the types of Rolling contact bearing

1. Deep Groove ball Bearing
2. Cylindrical Roller Bearing
3. Angular contact Bearing
4. Taper Roller Bearing
5. Thrust Ball Bearing

Gate valve advantages and disadvantages

Gate valves are widely utilized in many different applications and can be underground or put below ground. It can be used in fully closed or fully open mode. So here this article gives the advantages and disadvantages of gate valves to better understand this topic.

Benefits or Advantages of Gate Valve

1. It is inexpensive and has good valve rigidity.
2. Simple design and low flow resistance.
3. The closing features are very good for this valve.
4. Gate valves offer superior sealing performance.
5. It is easy to maintain and disassemble.
6. It is good manufacturing technology.
7. It takes very little torque to open and close.
8. Installing it is simpler than installing other kinds of valves.
9. The fluid resistance of gate valves is minimal.
10. It can provide a larger flow capacity than a ball valve.
11. installs more easily than other kinds of valves.
12. They provide laminar flow, and the pressure loss is minimal.
13. It works well with viscous liquids and slurries.
14. There are two flow directions for gate valves.
15. It is good manufacturing technology and a wide range of technology.
16. The length of the structure is relatively short.
17. Applications requiring zero leakage can be used it. It can be used for the most typical industrial uses, such as processing chemicals, gas, water, and oil.
18. This valve can be used both ways in the circuit.

Drawbacks or Disadvantages of Gate Valve

1. It is difficult to repair and operate because it requires a lot of torque to open and close.
2. Prone to scratches and  Poor throttling characteristics and not used for throttling conditions.
3. The opening height and overall dimension are relatively large, which requires a large installation space.
4. Both the entrance height and shape size are greater.
5. The gate valve opens and closes slowly.
6. It is complex and sensitive with many moving parts and seals.
7. This valve can require regular calibration.
8. It can be time-consuming and costly.
9. Have high-pressure drop. The valve stem may not be strong enough to withstand high pressure and may break.
10. The more parts, the structure is more complex.
11. It's harder to manufacture and maintain.
12. Gate valves can be difficult to place, making it difficult to achieve a good seal.
13. Gate valves are more expensive than ball and butterfly types of valves. Because it requires more manufacturing materials.
14. A gate valve's susceptibility to corrosion damage is another problem. This is a result of the metal used to make gate valves, which corrodes when exposed to liquids like water. This could lead to a leak or even the valve failing.
15. Another disadvantage of gate valves is that they can become stuck. so it can be difficult to open or close the valve, long time to open and close. causing difficulties in the piping system.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ball Valve

The advantages of ball valves are to be it are low maintenance, easy to operate, easy to use, simple to repair, strong, versatile, durable, open and close quickly, lower cost, have no leakage. The disadvantage of a ball valve is it has limited flow control. It is difficult to repair, and not suitable for all applications. It can be difficult to operate and has a higher torque requirement. Before you make the final selection, let's find the advantages and disadvantages of ball valves so you can make an informed choice. 

Advantages or Benefits of Ball Valve

1. Ball valves are very durable have a simple design and are easy to open and close. 
2. Ball valves are easily quick and simple to install.
3. They have very small dimensions compared to gate valves.
4. Another benefit of a ball valve is that it is simple to maintain and manage high pressure and flow of temperature.
5. Compared to other kinds of valves, they require less control.
6. Ball valve provides leakproof service.
7. They are smaller than gate valves.
8. Ball valves are also very versatile and may be utilized in various industrial applications, including controlling the flow of liquids and gases.
9. Ball valves need less maintenance and cost significantly less than equivalent devices for the same task.
10. Ball valves do not require any maintenance and create a bubble-tight seal with minimal torque.
11. These valves come in a variety of sizes and forms, so they provide users greater options.

Disadvantages or Drawbacks of Ball Valve

1. One of the primary drawbacks of ball valves is that they have limited flow control.
2. Frequent operation and high-velocity flow can wear out the ball and valve seats, reducing their lifespan. So it needs for maintenance and replacement.
3. another issue with balls is that they can be difficult to repair. If the problem with the seal, the entire valve will need to be replaced.
4. If the ball valve leaks, it can cause major damage to equipment and property.
5. The main issue with the ball valve is that it is not a good choice for throttling for a long time. So it could not be used for throttling. Due to this reason, the ball valve loses its efficiency during permanent throttling.

Conclusion

A Ball valve is a simple mechanical device used to control the flow of fluid through the piping system. The advantages of ball valves are it is convenient and cost-effective making them ideal for most industrial applications. 

Gear pump Advantages and Disadvantages

A set of gears moves fluid through the pump. A gear pump has two different kinds of gear: driven and driver. There are so many advantages of a gear pump like, it is low cost, easy to maintain,  less sensitive, works silently, is simple, and has high work efficiency. The disadvantages of gear pumps are it is difficult to replace parts, generate extensive noise, very loud. So here this article gives the advantages and disadvantages of gear pumps to better understand this topic.

Benefits or Advantages of Gear Pump

1. Gear pumps are a suitable option for settings where noise pollution is an issue because they operate smoothly.
2. The gear pump works silently.
3. Because of its simple construction, gear pumps are simple to take apart repair, and put back together.
4. The gear pump works between 93% and 98% of its capacity, sometimes even reaching 100%.
5. They provide controllable output.
6. The cavity of this pump is less sensitive.
7. It is capable of transferring medium-sized solids.
8. Compared to other pumps, the gear pumps are light in weight and easy to transport compared to the conventional pump.
9. During fluid transfer, there is no friction between the surface materials.
10. Both high and low-viscosity products can be transferred with it without any issues.
11. It can be widely applied to occasions with low-pressure requirements and medium and low machine tools.
12. The gear pump is 100% leak-free design offers excellent chemical contentment.
13. With its 100% leak-proof design, the gear pump provides outstanding chemical contentment.

Drawbacks or Disadvantages of Gear Pump

• The gear pump is not best for abrasive fluids because of its meshing gears.
• These pumps generate extensive noise.
• They supply pulsating flow.
• It cannot pump solid.
• Gear pumps can be very loud.
• It becomes cost-competitive above 400 LPH.
• It provides extremely poor dry suction lift.

Butterfly valve Advantages and Disadvantages

The butterfly valve is a device that assists in enhancing flow control. There are several varieties and sizes of butterfly valves. Their performance varies depending on the design of wastewater collecting and water distribution application. The advantages of the Butterfly valve is it is Light in weight, compact, simple, cost-effective, has Low maintenance requirement, ease of operation and actuation. Disadvantages of the Butterfly valve are No high-pressure throttling, Poor sealing function, Cavitation, and choked flow. If you would like to know more about butterfly valves, let us check out the advantages and disadvantages of butterfly valves.

Some of the Advantages of Butterfly valve are given below

1. This valve has a good adjustment performance.
2. This valve is operated frequently due to its easy opening and closing with little fluid resistance.
3. It is possible to achieve good sealing at low pressure.
4. At the pipe mouth, mud may be carried and stored in the least amount of liquid.
5. It is easy to install thus it is widely used in industrial applications.
6. The performance of the low-pressure sealing is good.
7. It is simple in structure and smaller in size than a ball valve of the same diameter needs.
8. Light in weight compared to a ball valve.
9. The compact design of a butterfly valve requires considerably less space as compared with a globe valve, gate valve, or other valves.
10. It is a short structure length, suitable for large caliber valves, thus this valve provides a bubble-tight service.
11. The method saves labor and is flexible. One may select from manual, electric, pneumatic, and hydraulic modes.

Some of the Disadvantages of a Butterfly valve are given below

1. The range of Working temperature and working pressure is small.
2. It is a Poor sealing function.
3. Service for throttling butterfly valves is restricted to low-pressure drop.
4. When butte4rfly valves work there is a risk of cavitation and choked flow.
5. The movement of the butterfly valve is affected by flow turbulence.

Globe valve Advantages and Disadvantages

A globe valve is an opening and closing(new valve) part that is moved linearly up and down the valve seat(sealing surface) axis using the valve system. So let us check out the globe valve advantages and disadvantages to better understand this topic.

Benefits or Advantages of Globe Valve

1. It is a good shutoff capability.
2. The glove valve structure is simpler.
3. It is lower cost.
4. It is a better manufacturing process.
5. Easy maintenance.
6. The stroke length is short as compared to a gate valve.
7. Globe valve is available in tee, wye, and angle patterns.
8. Valve throttling capabilities range from moderate to excellent.
9. As a stop check valve, it can be used.
10. Globe valves are durable.
11. Globe valves can handle high-pressure applications.
12. In the long term, it can save money.

Drawbacks or Disadvantages of Globe Valve

1. It is a higher pressure drop.
2. It requires greater force.
3. Require additional energy to maintain rates.
4. Globe valves are mostly larger and heavier.
5. Limited suitability for high flow rates.
6. Poor regulation performance.
7. The globe valve has big flow resistance.
8. It is not suitable for the medium with particles.
9. It is more expensive than some other types of valves.
10. A Globe valve is a large opening and closing power.

Related Article:

1. Advantages and disadvantages of ball valve
2. Advantages and disadvantages of Butterfly valve

Advantages and disadvantages of biodegradable plastics

Biodegradable plastics are made when ultraviolet radiation, enzymes, bacteria, and water are exposed and break down. It is made from traditional petrochemicals but designed to break down faster. There are several advantages and disadvantages of biodegradable plastics. You can check it out here in this article. 

Advantages of biodegradable plastics

1. Recycling biodegradable plastics is easy and simple.  
2. Biodegradable plastics consume less energy during their manufacturing. 
3. They contain less harmful chemicals. 
4. It is less harmful because it releases fewer toxic substances. 
5. It can decompose quickly as waste is less. 
6. It produces fewer emissions and less carbon dioxide. 
7. It consumes less fossil fuels. 
8. Biodegradable plastics have recently been used for export industry. 
9. The dependence on oil is reduced due to the alternative of biodegradable plastics. 
10. The use of biodegradable plastics is good for our environment. 

Disadvantages of biodegradable plastics

1. Expensive to produce as costly equipment is used for both processing and recycling. 
2. Engineering problems may arise, as they are made from plants such as corn and soybeans. 
3. There is a risk of contamination due to confusion between biodegradable and non-biodegradable plastics. 
4. Some biodegradable plastics may produce methane when decomposing in landfills. 
5. Biodegradable plastics do not solve ocean pollution problem. 
6. Some biodegradable plastics may contain metals. It raises the issue of toxicity left after decomposition. 

Advantages and disadvantages of solid lubricants

A lubricant is a substance in the form of solid or liquid, that helps machine easily and smoothly. It is used to reduce the friction between two contact surfaces. Solid lubricant is also called dry lubricant. Graphite, Molybdenum disulfide, and Solvents are some of the popular solid lubricants. There are many advantages and disadvantages of solid lubricants. You can check and understand more about solid lubricants here in this article. 

Advantages of solid lubricants

1. Solid lubricants are highly stable in high-temperature and high-pressure environments. 
2. Solid lubricants provide permanent lubrication with no leakages. 
3. It is good boundary lubrication and it has good electrical conductivity. 
4. It enables the machine to be simple and lighter because no seals or lubrication distribution system is required. 
5. Solid lubricants are more effective as compared with liquid lubricants when there is high loading at contact points. 
6. It offers benefits at locations where servicing is difficult. 
7. High resistance to abrasion in high-dust environment. 
8. High resistance to deterioration in high radiation and reactive environment. 
9. Lubrication loss is minimal in a solid lubrication system. 
10. You can easily store solid lubricants for a long time. 
11. No viscosity effects when we use solid lubricants, thus it provides corrosion protection. 

Disadvantages of solid lubricants

1. The endurance life of this lubricant is dependent on operating conditions such as atmosphere, loading contact, and sliding speed. 
2. Solid lubricants have poor adhesion, poor heat dissipation, and poor self-healing properties.
3. It can produce unpredictable torque at low speeds due to the heavy transfer of these lubricants.  
4. Solid lubricants have a higher coefficient of friction and wear for hydrodynamic lubrication. 
5. The reapplication of solid lubrication is difficult or impossible. 

Advantages and disadvantages of liquid lubricants

A lubricant is a substance in the form of a solid or liquid, that helps the machine work easily and smoothly. It is used to reduce friction between two contact surfaces. Oil and grease are two popular and widely used liquid lubricants. There are many advantages and disadvantages of liquid lubricants. You can check them one by one here in this article. 

Advantages of liquid lubricants

1. Long endurance lives if lubricants are properly used. 
2. Low mechanical noise in most lubrication systems. 
3. Very low friction in the elastohydrodynamic lubrication system. 
4. No wear between the two surfaces, as lubrication makes the surface slippery and slick. 
5. No wear in the elastohydrodynamic system. 
6. Promotion of thermal conductance between two surfaces. 
7. The protective layer formed by lubricants helps to safeguard the component's surface against rust and corrosion. 

Disadvantages of liquid lubricants

1. Long-term storage of lubricants is difficult. 
2. Endurance life is dependent on lubrication loss. 
3. Additives are necessarily used for a boundary lubrication system. 
4. Friction is dependent on speed in the liquid lubrication system. 
5. The temperature of this type of lubrication is dependent on viscosity, vapor pressure, and creep. 
6. We need to use seals or barrier coatings to prevent creep. 
7. Finite vapor pressure and oil loss. 

Pros and cons of mining

The pros of mining are creates jobs, and improves the economic growth of the country. The cons of mining are leads to soil and groundwater pollution and loss of biodiversity. There are certain pros and cons of mining. Let us check out the mining advantages and disadvantages to know more about it. 

Pros of Mining are 

1. Mining allows a good amount of mineral and ore resources.
2. It can create a number of jobs in the mining industry.  
3. It has the potential to assist underprivileged regions in developing and progressing. 
4. Important for technological progress.
5. Major income source for some countries.
6. It may help to improve the economic growth of the country.  
7. Mining is necessary for many products in daily life. 
8. The efficiency of mining has been optimized over time. 
9. Low operating cost and high productivity. 

Cons of Mining are

1. It can lead to soil and groundwater pollution. 
2. Loss of biodiversity. 
3. Safety concerns as it requires a worker to go underground. 
4. Mining can be dangerous too. 
5. Insufficient regulations formed regarding mining. 
6. Ecological imbalance. 
7. Landslides become more likely. 
8. Depletion of natural resources. 
9. High cost as it needs advanced equipment. 

Disadvantages of sunroof in cars

When you buy a new car with a sunroof, you may usually try it out once or twice, but after that week later you forget that it's even there. The main disadvantage of sunroofs is that use, particularly in cities with hot climates is minimal and thus, it gets deteriorate with time with no use. In addition, the replacement or repair costs are expensive. You can also check other disadvantages of sunroofs in cars when you consider buying a car with a sunroof. 

Disadvantages of sunroof in cars

1. Sunroofs affect the mileage of the car. Driving at high speeds with an open sunroof affects the aerodynamics of the car which causes additional drag. 
2. The sunroof eats the headroom. 
3. When the car gets old, the sunroof often starts leaking. 
4. As we talk in the first paragraph, keeping the sunroof in working condition required a lot of regular maintenance. 
5. After years, the sunroof electrical motor starts creating electrical problems. 

Panoramic sunroof pros and cons

Cars with panoramic sunroofs catch attraction to buyers of all ages for many reasons. Those who want to enjoy the open air without the roof structure can do so at the press of a button. It opens much like regular sunroofs and allows light and a great view of stars and the sky. The pros of a Panoramic sunroof are extra light, visibility, ventilation and style. The cons of a Panoramic Sunroof are extra weight, complexity, expense, and headroom. There are several pros and cons of panoramic sunroof owning a car with a panoramic sunroof. Read More! 

Pros of Panoramic Sunroof

1. A panoramic sunroof allows more light and air into the car which helps to improve overall mood and exposure to natural light while cruising around the town. 
2. Panoramic sunroofs produce less wind noise within the cabin so your car won't feel any outside air sound. 
3. Having a car with a panoramic sunroof makes long-distance travel less claustrophobic.

Cons of Panoramic Sunroof

1. Because of the natural light, the inside feels spacious, and the car with a panoramic sunroof has somewhat less headroom.
2. Added glass can cause the interior much warmer on the hottest days. 
3. On winter days, condensation from the window may cause moisture to drip into the cabin. 
4. The cost is also high compared to a sunroof. 

Best cars with Panoramic Sunroof

1. Audi A3 Saloon
2. Mercedes-Benz C-class Coupe
3. Range Rover
4. Hyundai Veloster
5. MINI Cooper Hardtop 2-door
6. Volkswagen Golf
7. BMW 3 Series Sports Wagon
8. Chrysler 300
9. Lincoln MKZ
10. Genesis G80 
    

Sunroof Vs Panoramic roof

Are you confused between a sunroof and a panoramic roof? There are several factors you should consider. You should consider investing in additional tints or blinds for extra protection when the weather gets warm. Also, consider your interior space demands. The main difference between sunroof and panoramic roof is the sunroof is compact and typically installed above the front seats. While the panoramic roof can run almost the full length of the car's roof. Extra light can be one of the biggest benefits of the panoramic roof allows extra light in the car. As a result, the panoramic glass roof can make the interior of the car much more spacious. 

Sunroof Vs Panoramic roof

1. The price of a panoramic roof car is double compared with a sunroof car. 
2. The aerodynamic drag is more in panoramic roof cars as compared with sunroof. Thus, the mileage of panoramic cars is lesser than cars with sunroofs. 
3. Sunroof is typically compact in size whereas a panoramic roof cover full length of the roof. 
4. The amount of light come inside the cars are more in panoramic roof car as compared with sunroof cars.