Characteristics of fluid

What is fluid :

A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when it is subjected to external shearing forces.

Characteristics of Fluid :

• It has no proper shape of its own but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel.
• A fluid can be defined unambiguously as a material that deforms continuously and permanently under the application of shearing stress, no matter how small.
• The fluid has elastic properties only under direct compression.

1. Ideal Fluid

An ideal fluid is one which has

• No viscosity
• No surface tension
• Incompressible

2. Real Fluid

A Real fluid is one which has

• Viscosity
• Surface tension
• Compressible

Naturally available all fluids are real fluid.

What is swaging

Swaging is a mechanical deformation technique of reducing or shaping the cross-section of rods or tubes by means of repeated impacts or blows, especially in order to reduce cross-section.

Swaging is similar to the forging process in which the dimensions of items are altered using dies into which the item is forced.

Swaging is usually a cold working process but sometimes also done by hot working.

Swaging is a noisy operation but it can be reduced by proper mounting of the machine or by the use of the enclosure.

Types of swaging :

Swaging can be classified as the following category :

• Internal swaging 
• External swaging
• Combination swaging
• Dual swaging 
• Rotary swaging

Internal swaging can provide grip to hose material, and be used to improve flow area through tubing or hoses. While external swaging is the opposite of internal swaging. 

Combination swaging is similar to external swaging, except for the fact it involves welding ends together. It also is known to be more cost-effective than external swaging. 

Dual swaging uses both internal and external swaging and involves compressing both aspects by the same amount. Rotary swaging is an operation where the two dies which are free to move radially are held in a spindle that rotates continuously. 

Operation :

In swaging operation, the work material is completely restricted by the die which is given the requisite external shape. These dies intermittently hammer the stock to produce deformation. This hammering action producing the necessary shape also ensure good surface quality, better grain structure and high tensile strength. 

This is simply carried out by any unskilled operator.

Advantages of swaging :

• The parts produced by swaging have tolerance in the range ± 0.05 mm to ± 0.5 mm
• Improved mechanical properties.
• The use of lubricants helps in obtaining a better work surface finish and longer die life.
• Tungsten and molybdenum are generally swaged at elevated temperatures as they have low ductility at room temperature.
• Hot swaging is also used to form long or steep tapers, and for large reductions.

Where swaging is used :

• This process mostly used in car design. 
• Repairing the musical instrument.
• Also used in circuit boards, hose fittings, pipe fittings, lock bolts, sawing blade teeth.
• Typical parts manufactured by this process like screwdrivers, furniture legs, tapered bar and tubes.
• Swaging used in manufacturing industries for pointing the end of a workpiece. 

Full form of ARAI

What is the full form of ARAI?

Answer :

• Automotive Research Association of India

What does ARAI mean?

It is an industrial research association by the automotive industry and the Government of India.

The objectives of this association are research and development in automobile engineering or industries and advanced courses on the application of modern technology and the conduct of specific tests.

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Difference between spur gear and helical gear

Spur and helical both of this two are different types of mechanical gears but there are fundamental difference according to there design and make more suitable in there given respective task.

What is spur gear?

Spur gears are also known as straight-cut gears consists of a cylinder or disk with radially projected teeth and the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. 

What is helical gear?

Helical gears are one type of cylindrical gears the teeth are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. It is an improved version of the spur gear. 

Let us have a deep insight into the compassion and difference between both gears. 

Difference between the spur and helical gear : 

• Spur gear there is no helix angle while helical gear has helix angle.
• Contact between teeth of two meshing gears occurs suddenly in case of spur gear whereas gradually occurs in helical gear. 
• For high-speed transmission, helical gears are used as there is less noise than spur gears.
• Helical gear has a higher contact ratio than spur gears and they operate smoother and quieter than spur gears.
• Helical gear has longer teeth than spur gears and has a higher load-carrying capacity. 
• Straight tooth gear used to transmit power in spur gear while helical gear has teeth inclined to the axis.
• In spur gear, there is a negligible axial thrust present between shafts while in a helical gear higher axial thrust may be present. 
• Spur gears are more efficient than helical gears.
• The cost of manufacturing spur gear is less than that of the helical gear.
• Helical gears are more durable than spur gears.
• A spur gear is suitable for the velocity ratio of 1:1 to 1:3 and helical gear is suitable for the velocity ratio of 1:1 to 1:5.
• Teeth of spur gear can be cut easily as it required only two-dimensional motion while making teeth for helical gear comparatively difficult as it required three-dimensional motion. 

The similarity between the spur and helical gear : 

• Both are suitable for transmission of power and motion between parallel shafts only not used for the non-parallel shafts. 
• Both gears can provide a positive drive. 
• Both are suitable for a smaller distance of power transmission not above 0.5m.
• In both gears, there is no flexible element exist between two gears.  

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1. Difference between parallel and crossed  helical gears

Difference between flywheel and governor

Governor and flywheel both of them are used for almost the same purpose, but the main difference between them is the point of impact or area of impact. Flywheel regulates the variation of speed at crankshaft while governer controls the variation of speed caused by load variation. Well, both are used to stabilize speed during fluctuation, so the difference between them is their working. Let us have a deep insight into the difference between those two terms. 

What is flywheel?

A heavy rotating wheel in a machine that increases the machine's momentum and thus provides greater stability or power reserve.

What is the governor?

A governer is also a mechanical speed control device that controls the mean speed of the engine when there are variations in load.

The main difference between them : 

The flywheel is always under operation when the engine is running and operations are continuous, whereas operation is intermittent in case of governer, which means it only operates when the engine does not run at its mean speed.  

Some more difference between them is following below. 

• Governor maintains the speed of the engine as per load if the load on the engine decreases governor increases the supply of fuel and vice-versa while flywheel stores the energy when the supply of energy is more than the requirement and it releases the energy when a requirement is more than the supply.
• Governor is an inter cycle device while the flywheel is an intracycle device.
• Due to external means, the governor controls the speed variations while the flywheel is controlled by internal means.
• Governor is mandatory for devices where constant speed is desired like generator while the flywheel is mandatory for the machines like a bike for the start of the operation.
• Governor controls constant mean speed while flywheel controls the variation of speed per each cycle of an engine.
• The operation of a flywheel is continuous while that of a governor is more or less intermittent.
• The kind of energy stored in a flywheel is kinetic energy all kinetic energy convertible into work without friction while governor mechanism involves frictional losses.
• The flywheel may not be used if the cyclic fluctuations of energy output are small or negligible while the governor is essential for all types of engines to adjust the fuel supply as per the demand.
• The flywheel relatively heavy mechanical device with large moment of inertia whereas a governor is a light mechanical device with a small moment of inertia. 

Advantages of powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgy is the process like in the name given metallic powders are heated below their melting temperatures to achieve bonding. Let us have a deep insight into the advantages of powder metallurgy to know more about it. 

Advantages of powder metallurgy :

• The powder metallurgy parts can be produced to the net-shape requiring very little surface finishing operation.
• If we want higher dimensional accuracy coning or sizing operation can be used.
• It is possible to achieve a surface finish between 0.80 to 1.20 micron.
• It does not cause any waste products during the processing.
• It is very economical just some complex shapes which can not be economically machined.
• It is possible to produce parts with a combination of materials that is not possible by another process. Example - metals and ceramics can be mixed.
• Automation of this process can be easily accomplished.
• Due to automation reducing labour requirements and so low labour cost.
• This process provides controlled porosity.
• Tungsten and tungsten carbide can also be acquired by a powder metallurgy process while not acquired by other processes.
• Huge potential savings in production so it is also used for mass production.
• Raw materials are easily obtainable and relatively inexpensive.
• By using powder metallurgy very little scrap is generated.
• Parts that are produced by this process have sound and vibration damping properties.
• Parts that are produced by this process have good chemical homogeneity.
• It can produce complicated forms with a uniform microstructure.

Advantages and disadvantages of shell mould casting

Shell moulding, also known as shell mould casting, is a process of expendable mold casting using resin-covered sand to form the mold. This process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher rate of productivity, and lower labor requirements compared to sand casting. Let us have a deep insight into the pros and cons of shell mould casting in this article. 

Advantages of shell mould casting :

• More dimensional accuracy than sand castings.
• Tolerance of +0.25 to -0.25 mm for steel casting and +0.35 to -0.35 mm for grey cast iron is obtained.
• The surface should be smooth in shell mould casting. range of roughness is 3 to 6 microns.
• A very small amount of sand needs to be used.
• Mechanization is readily possible because of the simple processing involved in shell moulding.
• No gas inclusion occurs because of permeability of shell is high.
• Less foundry space required for the mould casting process.

Disadvantages of shell mould casting :

• Economical only if used in large production.
• The size of the casting obtained by shell moulding is limited.
• The highly complicated shape can not be obtained.
• More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling the shell mouldings.
• High pattern cost so the production cost is also high.

Advantages and disadvantages of investment casting

Whatever product you produced, a variety of processes can be used. With all of them, it is important to identify which will produce the best quality part at the most cost-effective price. Investment casting allows for a quality end product and rapid turnaround, not to mention offers an array material, sizes and configuration options. This may be the best process for your casting need. But before making your decision, here are some advantages and disadvantages of the process to help you better discern if it is the right option. 

Advantages of investment casting :

• A complex shape which is difficult to produce by any other method is easily produced by this process.
• Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores.
• A fine-grained structure at the outer surface of the casting obtained because free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity.
• This process can produce very fine details and thin sections.
• Almost any metal can be cast and any intricate parts can be castable. 
• Very close tolerance and better surface finish can be produced.
• Dimensions should not vary because there is no parting line.
• Castings produced by this process are ready for use with little or no machining required because of the excellent surface finish. 
• Controlled mechanical properties can be obtained.
• It is easily possible to achieve dimensional accuracy and tighter tolerances of 0.075 mm (0.003 inches).

Disadvantages of investment casting :

• The process is normally limited by the casting size and mass.
• More alloy component segregation during pouring under the rotational forces. 
• Contamination of the internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions. 
• Inaccurate internal diameter. 
• Investment castings require very long production cycle times as compared to other casting processes so time-consuming process. 
• Difficult to cast objects requiring cores.
• More expensive process because of large manual labour involved in the preparation of pattern and the mould.
• Due to its high cost and long cycle times, this process is practically infeasible for high-volume manufacturing.
• Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 inch (1.6mm) and should be no deeper than about 1.5 times the diameter. 
• It is limited to small casting and presented some difficulties where cores are involved. 

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1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent mould casting

Application of investment casting

Application of investment casting :

This process was used in the olden days for preparation of jewellery and surgical instruments.

Nowadays this process is used for making products like vanes and blades for the gas turbine, shuttle eyes for weaving, waveguides for radars, bolts and triggers for firearms, stainless steel valve bodies and impellers for turbochargers.

Advantages and disadvantages of die casting

Die casting process is widely used in the manufacturing sector and automobile industries because of many advantages of the die casting process. Let us have a deep insight into the pros and cons of die casting. 

Advantages of die casting : 

• Because of the use of movable cores, it is possible to obtain complex casting than that by permanent mould casting.
• Production rate is very high. The typical rate could be 200 pieces per hour.
• Die casting process is completely automated.
• Very small thickness can be easily filled because the liquid metal is injected at high pressure.
• Very good surface finish in order of 1 micron can be obtained.
• The surface generated by the die casting process is directly electroplated without further processing.
• Dimensional tolerance is very close in order n between +0.08 to -0.08 can be obtained.
• The die has a long life.
• Inserts can be readily cast in place.
• This process is very economical for large scale production.
• It will give better mechanical properties compared to sand casting.

Disadvantages of die casting : 

• Material limitations all material and alloy can not be cast. 
• The cost of the machine dies and other equipment is high. 
• Not economical for small quantity production. 
• Heavy casting can't be cast by this process.
• Limited to high-fluidity metals.
• The air in the die cavity gets trapped inside the casting causes a problem of porosity.

What is die casting

Die casting is a permanent mould manufacturing process. It was first developed in the early 1900s. Die casting is a widely spread technique for which the metal is forced into the mould cavity under high pressure and produced geometrical complex metal parts through the use of reusable moulds is called dies. In this process involves furnace, metal, die casting machine and die. The mould cavity is like intricate in designs that enable in producing complex shapes with good surface finish, high accuracy and attractiveness.

Working principle of die casting :

Die casting process complete in five stages that we can discuss below :

1. Clamping
2. Injection
3. Cooling
4. Ejection
5. Trimming

Above mentioned five stages this process the die consists of two parts. one part is called stationary half or cover die which is fixed to the die casting machine. The second part is called moving half or ejector die that is moved out for the extraction of the casting. The casting cycle starts when two parts of the die are apart. The lubricant is sprayed on the die cavity manually or automatically because casting will not stick to the die. The two die halves are closed and clamped. The required amount of metal is injected into the die. After the casting is solidified under the pressure the die is opened and casting is ejected. It will also have cooling channels to extract the heat of the molten metal to maintain proper die temperature.

The die casting machine is two types :

1. Hot chamber die casting
2. Cold chamber die casting 

In between two types, the main difference is that in the hot chamber machine, the holding furnace for the liquid metal is integral with the die casting machine. wherein cold chamber machine, the metal is melted in a separate furnace after that metal is poured into the die casting machine with a ladle for each casting cycle is called shot.

Hot chamber dies casting machine :

Hot chamber process is also called gooseneck casting. Hot chamber machines are used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc, tin, and lead. The gooseneck is made of grey alloy or ductile iron or of cast steel. The operating sequence of this process is typical injection pressures for a hot chamber die casting machine are between 1000 and 5000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity and then the plunger remains down, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit.  the plunger moves back returning the used liquid metal to the gooseneck. The casting which is in the ejector die is now ejected then the plunger uncovers the filling hole, letting the liquid metal from the furnace to enter the gooseneck.

In the hot chamber die casting process the direct immersion in the molten metal allows for quick and convenient mould injection, it also results in increased corrosion susceptibility. Because of these characteristics, the hot-chamber die casting process is best suited for applications that utilize metals with low melting points and high fluidity. Good metals for the hot-chamber die casting process include lead, magnesium, zinc and copper. 

Cold chamber dies casting machine :

The hot chamber process is used for most of the low melting temperature alloys while materials such as aluminium and brass. High melting temperature makes it difficult to cast them with the use of a hot chamber process because gooseneck of the hot chamber machine is continuously in contact with the molten metal.

In the cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured with a ladle into the shot chamber. this process reduces the contact time between the liquid metal and the shot chamber.

The operation is similar to that of the hot chamber process start with the spraying die lubricants throughout the die cavity and closing the die when molten metal is ladled into the shot chamber of the machine either manually or by hand or by means of the auto ladle. Then plunger forces the metal into the die cavity and maintains the plunger the pressure till it solidifies then die opens. The casting is ejected. At the same time plunger returns to its original position and completing the operation.

For hot chamber die casting characteristics is too corrosive for the immersion design while the cold-chamber process can be an excellent alternative. 

Die design :

Hot-working tool steels are normally used for the preparation of the dies, die inserts and cores. The die must allow the molten metal to flow easily into all of the cavities. Equally important is the removal of the solidified casting from the die, that is why the draft angle must be applied to the walls of the part cavity. The design of the die must also accommodate any complex features on the part such as undercuts will require additional die pieces. 

• For zinc alloy, the normal die material is AISI P20 for low volume and H13 for high volume.
• For aluminium and magnesium H13 and H11 are used.
• For copper alloy H20, H21 and H22 are used as die material.

High-grade tool steel is the most common and is typically used for 100-150,000 cycles. Steels with low carbon content are more resistant to cracking and can be used for 1,000,000 cycles.

Benefits of the die casting process :

• High quality :

Parts which are produced by this process have a long service life and its quality is high.

• High reliability :

By this process, uniform parts are produced and all are highly reliable.

• Quick production :

In that process just die casting tooling is required after produced one part this process is quick as compared to another manufacturing process of making uniform parts.

• Minimal assembly :

Assembled of parts that are used in die casting machine are easy.

• Versatile design :

Die casting application :

• It is suitable for casting medium-sized parts with complex details.
• It is widely used in manufacturing commercial, industrial products, automobile industries and aerospace.
• The typical products like carburettors, crank-cases, magnetos, handlebar housing, other parts of scooters, motorcycles and mopeds, zip fasteners and gears.

Properties and characteristics of the die casting process :

• Parts manufactured by this process are close tolerance, very high surface finish and thin intricate walls.
• Production rate is very high.
• Equipment cost for die casting is generally high but its assembly is easy.
• This process is highly automated so the labour cost is low.
• Parts that manufactured by this process are with superior mechanical properties because of rapid cooling.
• Ejector pins will usually leave small round marks on the metal casting so this will be observed on the surface of manufactured parts.

Because of these properties and characteristics, this process has many advantages and it is widely used in manufacturing industries

Operation of shaper machine

The different operation which a shaper can perform are as follows :

1. Machining horizontal surface
2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Cutting slot grooves and keyways
5. Machining splines or cutting gears
6. Machining irregular surface
7. Dovetail slides
8. Producing contour of concave/convex or a combination of these

Machining horizontal surface :

A shaper is mostly used to machine a flat surface on a work piece held in a vice. After work is properly held on the table the tool is set in the tool post. The table is raised until there is a clearance of 25 to 30 mm between tool and work piece. then the length of the stroke is adjusted. proper cutting speed and feed are adjusted. then both roughing and finishing cut are perform on the shaper machine.

Machining vertical surface :

A vertical cut is made while the end of the work piece, squaring up a block or cutting shoulder. The work is mounted on the table and the surface to be machined is carefully aligned with the axis of ram. A side cutting tool is set on the tool post and the position and length of stroke are adjusted. The vertical slide is set exactly zero position and the apron is swivelled in a direction away from the surface being cut.

Machining angular surface :

An angular cut is made at any angle other than a right angle to the horizontal or to the vertical plane. work is set on table vertical slide of the tool head is swivelled to the required angle either towards left or right. Then down feed is given by rotating the down feed screw. thus the angular surface being machined.

Working principle of shaper machine

Working Principle:

Shaper machine works on quick return mechanism.

First of all the work piece is rigidly fixed on the machine table. 

The single point cutting tool held properly in the tool post and it is mounted on a reciprocating ram. 

The reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by a quick return motion mechanism. As the ram reciprocates, the tool cuts the material during its forward stroke. 

During the return stroke, there is no cutting action and this stroke is called the idle stroke. 

The forward and return strokes constitute one operating cycle of the shaper.

So by this operation forward and return both stroke machining is done.

The reciprocating movement of the ram and the quick return mechanism of the machine are usually obtained by any one of the following methods :

• Crank and slotted link mechanism
• Whitworth quick return mechanism
• Hydraulic shaper mechanism

Types of shaper machine

Types of shaper machine:

1. According to the type of mechanism used  for giving reciprocating motion to the ram :

• Crank type
• Geared type
• Hydraulic type

2. According to the position and travel of ram :

• Horizontal type
• Vertical type
• Travelling head type

3. According to the type of design of the table :

• Standard shaper 
• Universal shaper 

4. According to the type of cutting stroke :

• Push type
• Draw type

Parts of shaper machine

Main parts of shaper machine :

Base :

The base is the main body of the machine. It consist of all elements of the machine. The bed may be rigidly bolted to the floor of the shop or on the bench according to the size of the machine.

The base is made of cast iron to resist vibration and take up high compression load.

Column :

The Column is a box it can be mounted upon the base.

It provides the housing for the crank slider mechanism and also encloses the ram driving mechanism.

Two accurately guideways are provided on the top of the column on which the ram reciprocates.

Crossrail :

The Crossrail is mounted on the front vertical guideways of the column.

A horizontal cross feed screw which is fitted within the Crossrail and parallel to the top guideways of the column.

It attaches with some cross-movement mechanism.

Saddle :

The saddle is mounted on the Crossrail which holds the table firmly on its top.

Crosswise movement of the saddle by rotating the crossfeed screw by hand or by the power to move sideways.

Clapper Box :

The Clapper box carries the tool holder.

It provides clearance for the tool in return stroke.

It also prevents the cutting edge dragging the work piece while return stroke and prevents tool wear.

Table :

The table is bolted to the saddle receives crosswise and vertical movements from the saddle and Crossrail. It is the metal body attached over the frame.

The main function of the table is to hold the work piece and vice over it.

T slots which used to clamp vice and work piece over it.

Ram :

Ram is the main part of shaper machine.

The ram is a reciprocating member of shaper machine.

Ram is semi-cylindrical in shape and heavily ribbed inside to make it more rigid.

Ram is made by cast iron and moves over ways on the column.

It attached by the rocker arm which provide it motion in the crank driven machine and if the machine is hydraulically driven it attached by hydraulic housing.

Toolhead :

Toolhead is situated at the front of the ram.

The main function of it is to hold the cutting tool.

The cutting tool can be adjusted on it by some of the clamps.

Stroke adjuster :

It is attached below the table.

It is used to control the stroke length which further controls the ram movement.

Table supports :

These are attached front side of the table and used to support the weight of the table during working.

Advantages of hydraulic shaper

Shaper is a type of machine which, using hydraulic power, provide linear relative motion between the workpiece and single-point cutting tool to a linear path. Under high pressure, oil is pumped into the piston-fitted operating cylinder. This machine gives the following advantages. 

Advantages of hydraulic shaper : 

• The cutting speed and return speed of this shaper is practically constant throughout the stroke thus work done is uniform during the cutting stroke.
• The reversal of the ram is obtained quickly without any shock as the oil on the other end of the cylinder provides cushioning effect.
• An infinite number of cutting speeds may be obtained and its control is also easier. speed range varies from zero to the maximum value.
• Because of the high rate of return speed, a greater number of cutting strokes may be available within the range of cutting speed.
• The relief valve ensures safety to the tool and the machine when the machine is overloaded.
• Wide range of speed can achieve by controlling the fluid flow rate to shaper ram. 
• Shock and vibration levels can reduce. 
• Higher load-carrying capacity. 
• Fluid on both sides of the ram provides a cushioning effect. 
• Highly efficient. 

Advantages of vertical boring machine over lathe machine

The vertical boring machine may be looked like a vertical lathe with its headstock resting on the floor and its large faceplate or chuck lying in a horizontal plane. This specified vertical boring machine design offers some advantages over a lathe machine. Let us have a deep insight into the advantages below. 

Advantages of a vertical boring machine :

• Large diameter and heavy workpiece may be set up more conveniently and quickly than on lathe machine.
• The table and the work it carries rotate in a horizontal plane, and there is no overhang as in the lathe spindle, and any chance of bending the spindle which supports the heavy workpiece is eliminated.
• The diameter of the table may be designed as large as possible to support large workpieces.
• Multiple tooling may be adapted in case of a vertical boring machine with its turret type tool post, as a result, increasing the rate of production.

Vertical boring machine

A vertical boring machine is particularly adapted for holding and machining the large, heavy workpiece.
On vertical boring machine following work are done :

• Large gear blanks
• Locomotive and rolling stock tires
• Steam and water turbine castings
• Flywheels
• Large flanges and number of circular-shaped parts

A vertical boring machine can take an only a circular cut.

The vertical boring machine is of two types :

• Vertical turret lathe
• Standard vertical boring machine

Vertical boring machine parts :

1. Bed
2. Table
3. Housing
4. Crossrail
5. Tool-head assembly

Size of vertical boring machine :

Its size is specified by the diameter of its table or chuck expressed in mm.

The size of vertical turret lathe varies from 600 to 2000 mm. 

The size of a standard vertical boring machine is as high as 6000 mm.

Vertical boring machine tools :

The vertical boring machine tools are similar to lathe tools.

For boring operation, the clearance angle of the tool is greater than in turning or facing tool.

Vertical boring machine operation :

A vertical boring machine may generate a horizontal flat surface.

It can also produce cylindrical turned surface, bore internal hole, perform cutting off, necking or forming operation, and generate internal or external taper surface.