Types of Boring Machine

The boring machine may be classified into four types. we can check it our below :

1. Horizontal boring machine 

• Table type
• Floor-type
• Planer type
• Multiple head type

2. Vertical boring machine

• Vertical turret lathe
• Standard vertical boring machine

3. Precision boring machine

4. Jig boring machine

• Vertical milling machine type
• Planer type

Boring machine introduction

The first boring machine tool was invented by John Wilkinson in 1775.

The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tools used to bore holes in large and heavy parts such as engine frames, steam engine cylinders, machine housings etc which are practically impossible to hold and rotate in an engine lathe or a drilling machine.

By the use of the boring machine the range of speeds and feeds provided to various traversing components allow drilling, milling and facing operation with equal facility.

By the fitting of simple attachments, the use of the machine can be extended to include screw cutting, turning, planetary grinding or gear cutting.

What is polorization

Light is electromagnetic in nature. The light is transverse in nature. 

The vibration of the electric field and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and they are also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

The light in which electric field has the freedom to vibrate in all direction which is perpendicular to the propagation of light is known as unpolarised light.

Unpolorised means it has the freedom and it does not have any restrictions.

The light in which the electric field can vibrate only in one direction in another word there is restriction of vibration of an electric field such light is known as polarised light.
The phenomenon in which unpolarised light is converted into polarized light is known as polarization.

There are different method unpolarised light converted into polarised light :

• Using polarising materials.
• By reflection of light.
• By scattering of light. 
• By doable refraction of light.

What is diffraction

Diffraction :

Diffraction is the bonding of light around an edge of the obstacle such as the edge of the slit we can diffraction of light through the crack between two fingers at the distant source.

Diffraction of any kind of waves depends upon the wavelength and the size of the obstacle. 

For significant diffraction, the ratio of λ/d should be 1. 

There are two types of diffraction :

1. Fresnel diffraction
2. Fraunhofer diffraction

Optical wavelength

What is Optical Wavelength?

When there is a medium which has refractive index µ we have to use optical wavelength λ_µ.

The relation between optical wavelength and geometrical wavelength is given by 

λ_µ = λ / µ 

λ_µ = Optical wavelength

λ = Geometrical wavelength

µ = Refractive index of medium

Electromagnetic spectrum definition

The electromagnetic waves can be characterised by the parameters like wavelength, frequency, phase and state of polarization.

Wavelength :
The distance between two-crust or two throughs is known as wavelength. 
Wavelength denoted by λ.

Frequency : 
Frequency is the quantity that represents a number of oscillations that particle carries out in unit time.
Frequency denoted by ν.

Wavelength (λ) = c / Frequency (ν)

Where c = velocity of electromagnetic wave

Wavelength × Frequency = Velocity of the wave

The wavelength of the electromagnetic wave varies from 10^-12 meters to 10⁴ meters.

Phase :

The electromagnetic wave can be represented by a sine or cosine function.

E = E₀ Sin (wt + Φ )

Where E = Position of a wave at time t

E₀ = Maximum displacement of Amplitude

(wt + Φ ) = Phase of the wave

Φ = Initial phase or phase difference

Phase difference :

The difference between the phase if the two waves or phase of two position of a single wave is known as phase difference.

Wave optics Introduction

In a one-word optics can define that science of light.
Light has dual nature sometimes it behaves like a wave and sometimes it behaves like a particle.
In other word deal with optics is the branch of physics dealing with the study of optical phenomena.
The phenomena like reflection and refraction are explained by corpuscular theory. but the phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation can not explain the particle nature of light.
In optics, we consider the light as a wave.

We have also seen terms in optics are following below :

• Light 
• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Wavelength
• Frequency
• Phase
• Phase difference
• Coherence
• Interference 

Coherence definition in physics

Coherence :

If the phase difference between two waves or phase difference between two positions of the single wave remains constant, such waves are known as coherent waves and phenomenon is called coherence.

If the phase difference between two sources changes then sources are known as incoherent. Sunlight, incandescent lamp. tube light etc is an example of the incoherent source.

There are two methods by which we can produce a coherent source :

• Division of wavefront
• Division of amplitude

Types of coherence :

• Temporal coherence
• Spatial coherence

Measurement of coherence :

The coherence of any source can be measured by the visibility of contrast of the fringe system produced by the source. It is given by 

V = I_max - I_min / I_max + I_min 

Where I_max = Maximum Intensity of bright fringe

I_min = Minimum Intensity of dark fringe

Ruby Definition

Ruby :

Ruby is synthetic aluminium oxide ( Al₂O₃ ) with 0.05 weight of chromium oxide ( Cr₂O₃ ) added to it.

It is the chromium that gives the ruby its characteristics red colour.

Full form of LASER

What is the full form of LASER?

Answer :

• Light Amplification of Stimulated Emission of Radiation

What does LASER mean?

The laser is a device that can amplify light and produce a highly directional, intense, monochromatic, and coherent beam.


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Application of laser

The main characteristics of laser radiation are following below.

• Coherence
• Very narrow bandwidth
• High directionality
• Extreme brightness

With the above characteristics, the lasers have a wide range of application in different disciplines such as physics, chemistry, medicine, engineering etc. 

Application of laser : 

• The laser is a coherent source, measurement of distances based on interferromagnetic techniques is made much simpler.
• The large distance can be also measured by laser. 
• The time taken for a laser pulse to travel from the laser to the target and back again is measured. Using such a method, the distance between earth and moon have been determined to an accuracy of +-0.15 m.
• The laser beam is highly intense hence it can be used in application like Laser beam welding, Laser cutting of material.
• The laser also is suitable for machining and drilling holes.
• The most successful therapeutic application of the laser has been in eye-surgery for the detached retina.
• Lasers also can serve as war-weapon for military purpose.
• The laser can be used for investigating the structure of molecules.
• Lasers also being employed for separating the various isotopes of an element.
• The narrowness of bandwidth of lasers, the strongest capacity for information in computers is improved.
• Due to a narrow bandwidth, lasers are used in microwave communication. so in the field of communications, laser offers unusual advantages.
• Lasers have also been used for the treatment of dental decay, the destruction of malignant tumours and the treatment of skin diseases.
• Genetic research using laser is quite popular.
• The IBM corporation is trying to transmit an entire memory bank from one computer to another by using a laser beam.

Disadvantages of manual process planning

Manual process planning (MPP) has many disadvantages. In this article, you can check it out some information on the disadvantages of manual process planning to know more about it.

Disadvantages of manual process planning :

• MPP is largely subjective.
• Incorporation of process changes is extremely difficult.
• The quality of the process plan is directly related to the experience and skill of the planner.
• It is difficult to check if the process plan is consistent and optimized.
• It is tiresome to search manually the process plans of similar parts form a large amount of documentation of the company.
• Technological changes of batch sized require the change in process plan.
• MPPs are slow to respond.

What is rigid body

What is Rigid body?

Answer :

A body is said to be rigid if, under the action of forces, it does not suffer any distortion.

Another way to said that the distance between any two points on the body remains constant.

Electron beam machining

Electron beam machining is processed by a high-velocity focused stream of electrons which heats, melts and vaporizes the work material at the point of bombardment thus metal will be removed. 

The production of free electrons is obtained from thermo-electronic cathodes wherein metal are heated to the temperature at which the electrons have sufficient speed for escape and make the space around the cathode. Thus the electrons accelerate and are carried by an electric field and by controlled magnetic fields are using for focusing and concentration of that electric field. The kinetic energy of a beam of free electrons is transformed into heat energy thus the interaction of the electrons with the workpiece material. Therefore EBM is also called thermo-electric process.

Operation principle of electron beam machining :

A beam of electrons is emitted from the electron gun which is basically a triode consisting of

• A cathode which is a hot tungsten filament ( 2500 degree C ) emitting high negative potential electrons.
• A grid cup, negatively based with respect to the filament.
• An anode which is heats at ground potential, and through which the high-velocity electrons pass.

A gun is supplied with electric current from a high voltage D.C source. The flow of electrons is controlled by the negative bias applied to the grid cup. The electrons passing through the anode are accelerated to two-third of the velocity of light by applying 50 to 150 kV at the anode and this speed id maintained till they strike the workpiece.
A magnetic deflection coil is used to make the electron beam circular and its a cross-sectional diameter is 0.01 to 0.02 mm and deflect it anywhere.
A microscope with a magnification of 40 on the workpiece enables the operator to accurately locate the beam impact and observe the machining operation.
As the beam impacts on the workpiece surface the kinetic energy of high-velocity electrons is converted into the thermal energy and it vaporized the material at the spot of its impact.

The application of the above process is also found in electron-beam drilling in which an organic or synthetic backing material is sandwiched on the other side of the component.

Accuracy :
Tolerance is about 10% of slot width or hole diameter.
Taper about 4 degrees included angle 
Depth to diameter ratio can reach 20:1 with multiple pulses.
Heat affected zone of up to 0.03 mm deep has been observed.

Application of EDM

The EDM provides economic advantages for making stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion dies, header dies, intricate mould cavities.

It extremely used in aerospace industries, refractory metals, hard carbides and hardenable steels.

EDM application : 

• Drilling of micro-holes
• Thread cutting
• Helical profile milling
• Wire-cutting EDM
• Rotary forming
• Curved hole drilling
• Vacuum tubes

What is electric discharge machining

Electric discharge machining also is known as spark erosion.
It is the process of material removal based on the principle of metals by an interrupted electric spark discharge between the electrode tool and workpiece.

Working principle :

The main components of the EDM process are : 

• Electric power supply
• The dielectric medium 
• The workpiece and tool
• A servomotor

The basic process of EDM is really quite simple. The workpiece and the tool are electrically connected to D.C electric power supply. The workpiece is connected to the positive terminal of the electric source so that becomes the anode. The tool is a cathode. A gap is known as the 'spark-gap' in the range of 0.005 to 0.05 mm is maintained between the work piece and the tool.

In the spark gap produced spark is visible evidence of the flow of electricity. This electric spark produces intense heat with temperatures reaching 8000 to 12000 degree Celsius. The spark is controlled by very carefully and localized so that it affects the surface of the material only. 
The EDM process can be used in two different ways: 
1. A preshaped or formed electrode used as tool usually made from graphite is shaped to the form of the cavity it is to reproduce. The formed electrode is fed vertically down and the reverse shape of the electrode is eroded (burned) into the solid workpiece. 
2. A continuous-travelling vertical-wire electrode used as a tool and its diameter of a small needle or less is controlled by the computer. It follows a programmed path to erode the workpiece or cut a narrow slot to produce the required shape. 


The electrode ( Tools ) :

The shape of the tool will be basically the same as that of the product desired except that an allowance is made for side clearance and overcut.
The electrode materials generally used can be classified as metallic materials, non-metallic materials and a combination of metallic and non-metallic materials. Usually, copper, yellow brass, zinc and graphite are used for tools. Some low wearing tools are also used like silver-tungsten, copper-tungsten and metallized graphite. For commercial applications copper is best suited for fine machining. Aluminium is used for die-sinking while cast iron for rough machining.
One of the advantages of EDM is due to the fact that a tool made of a material softer than the workpiece material and which is a good conductor of electricity can be used to machine material of any hardness.
The wear of the tool in the EDM process due to electron bombardment is inevitable. 
The tool wears rates to determine the machining accuracy, tool movement, and tool consumption. 
The tool wear is the function of the rate of metal removal, the material of the workpiece, current setting, machining area, gap between the tool and workpiece and the polarity of the tool.

Wear ratio = Volume of work material removed / Volume of electrode consumed

Wear ratio = Depth of cut / Decrease in usable of the electrode

The wear ratio for carbon electrodes is up to 100:1.

For copper 2:1 

For brass 1:1

For copper tungsten 8:1

Purpose of Dielectric fluids :

• It used as a coolant for the workpiece and the tool. 
• It works as an insulating material during the charging of the condenser, as a result, perfect condition for efficacious spark discharge and its conduction when ionized is obtained. 
• The eroded materials are carried away by this medium. 
• It is a coolant in quenching the spark and prevents the arcing. 

Requirements of Dielectric fluids :

• Remain electrically nonconducting until the required break-down voltage has been reached.
• Breakdown electrically in the shortest possible time once the breakdown voltage has been reached.
• Have a good degree of fluidity.
• Be cheap and easily available.
• Be capable of carrying away the swarf particles.
• Inflammable. 
• It should be a hydrocarbon compound. 
• It should not produce toxic gases or vapours during the operation. 

Accuracy :

Tolerance value ( +- 0.05 ) mm could be easily achieved by EDM normal production.

By close control of the several variables tolerance ( +-0.003 ), mm could also be achieved.

Taper value id about to 0.005 to 0.05 mm per 100 mm depth.

An overcut of 5 to 100 micron is produced.

In no wear machining using graphite electrode a surface finish within 3.2 microns can be achieved.

Application of EDM :

The EDM provides economic advantages for making stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion dies, header dies, intricate mould cavities.

It extremely used in aerospace industries, refractory metals, hard carbides and hardenable steels.

Some of its applications are following below :

• Drilling of micro-holes.
• Thread cutting.
• Helical profile milling.
• Wire-cutting EDM.
• Rotary forming.
• Curved hole drilling.
• Vacuum tubes.

Advantages and disadvantages of laser beam machining

Any solid material which can be melted without decomposition can be cut with the laser beam machining. To remove material from metallic or non-metallic surfaces, this process uses thermal energy. The high frequency of monochromatic light will fall on the surface and the material will be heated, melted and vaporized due to the impression of photons.
In this article, you can check it out some information on the advantages and disadvantages of laser beam machining to know more about it.

Advantages of laser beam machining : 

• No direct contact between tool and workpiece.
• No tool wear.
• Soft materials like rubber and plastics can be machined.
• Extremely small holes can also be machined.
• Machining of any material and also nonmetal is possible.
• Heat affected zone is small because of the collimated beam.
• Welding of dissimilar metal can also be performed efficiently.
• Any environment can be suitable for performing this process through transparent and magnetic fields.
• Drilling and cutting of areas not readily accessible are possible.

Disadvantages of laser beam machining : 

• One of the main disadvantages of that is it cannot be used to cut metals that have high heat conductivity or high reflectivity.
• Overall efficiency is extremely low.
• The process is limited to a thin sheet.
• Very low material removal rate.
• The machined hole is not round and straight.
• Cost is high.
• Output energy from LASER is difficult to control precisely.
• The laser system is quite troublesome since the life of the flash lamp is short.
• Too deep holes are not possible to drill.
• While machining some plastic bum or char is noticed.
• Experienced and skilled operators are required.
• Rate of production is low.

Application of laser beam machining

Laser beam machining applications :

• Suitable for exceptional cases like machining very small holes and cutting complex profiles in a thin and hard material like ceramics.
• Sheet metal trimming, blanking and resistor trimming.
• Used in mass micromachining production, not for mass material removal.
• Used in partial cutting or engraving.
• To drilling micro holes in turbine engine blades.
• In both soft and hard materials cutting.
• Scribing of any material.
• Patterning displays of all glass and plastic wafers and chips.
• Can be used for dynamic balance of rotating parts.
• Welding of non-conductive and refractory material.
• Jewellers also use laser welding on delicate pieces of jewellery.
• Laser beams perform intricate cuts in plastic.

Application of electron beam machining

Electron beam machining application : 

• To drill fine gas orifices.
• For use less than 0.002 mm work.
• In space nuclear reactors.
• Turbine blades for supersonic aero-engines.
• To produce metering holes in injector nozzles in diesel engines.
• To scribe thin films.
• To remove small broken taps from holes.
• In transmission assembly.
• To produce wire drawing die.

Advantages and disadvantages of electron beam machining

Electron beam machining is processed by a high-velocity focused stream of electrons which heats, melts and vaporizes the work material at the point of bombardment thus metal will be removed. Let us have a deep insight into the pros and cons of electron beam machining in this article. 

Advantages of electron beam machining :

• EBM is an excellent method for micro finishing.
• It can cut drill holes or cut slots which otherwise cannot be made.
• It is possible to cut any known material.
• No cutting tool pressure or wear occurred in this process.
• It is distortion free-machining so precise dimensions can be achieved.

Disadvantages of electron beam machining :

• High equipment cost.
• Highly skill operator required.
• Only small cuts are possible.